Monday, November 07, 2005
Is Genocide Uniquely African?
From 600,000 to 1 million souls slaughtered in just 100 days in Rwanda. Thousands killed, raped and mutilated in Darfur, Sudan. On-going civil war and instability in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Somalia, Cote D'Ivoire, Northern Uganda .... is violence and genocide unique to the African continent? Why does it persist? Below, our 2 guest bloggers this week, Sarah G., and Kennan J present their views.
Dr. D.
Sarah G.
There will always be genocide in Africa as long as "tribalism" exists...
"There will be no rescue, no intervention for us. We can only save ourselves. Many of you know influential people abroad, you must call these people. You must tell them what will happen to us... say goodbye. But when you say goodbye, say it as if you are reaching through the phone and holding their hand. Let them know that if they let go of that hand, you will die." -Paul Rusesabagina, Hotel Rwanda. The atrocities of the Rwandan genocide certainly turned heads around the world. In only three months, an estimated 800,000 Tutsis and moderate Hutus were slaughtered in the hands of the Hutu extremist group known as the Interahamwe. On the surface, this massacre appears to be the result of tribalism. However, this is a common misconception as the Rwandan genocide was not the result of tribalism but rather of lingering ideals and policies implemented during colonialism furthered by deficient government and economic disparity. This theory serves as a microcosm of the situation throughout Africa.
Unfortunately, the term "tribalism" usually carries a negative connotation in which society is divided into a myriad of small groups prone to hostility and violence towards one another. While enmity does exist within tribalism, it is often the product of invariable factors such as scare resources and corrupt governance. In fact, it is arguable whether or not the degree of brutality within tribal societies overshadows that of civilized societies. African tribalism parallels the theory of ethnocentricity in the sense that the disparity between in each tribe is the same by which we can all be culturally defined. In other words, the religious, linguistic, and cultural lines that identify a Tutsi or Hutu are no more than what makes someone an Irish Catholic American. In the same ways that large populations have grouped together to form states and nations, so have small ones to form tribes, and in this way is tribalism no more than a sub category of social evolution. Who is to say then, that existence of tribalism cannot be a peaceful one? If tribes of Chinese, Japanese, Italians, and Indians can all make rest in New York City, than why not in Africa? The answer to this question does not point towards flaws in tribalism but rather the faults of colonialism.
The recent situation in Rwanda serves perfectly to link colonialism to genocide. German and Belgian rulers brought with them to Rwanda pre-conceived notions of racial hierarchy and white supremacy. The kindness and elegance of Tutsi tribe, coupled with their European-like features greatly impressed them as they implemented a system of indirect rule. In this case, not only did colonialism create tribal divisions but it also fostered a sense of primacy between the Tutsi and Hutu tribes, which led the Tutsi's oppression of the Hutu erupting in the 1994 genocide. "When people ask me, good listeners, why do I hate all the Tutsi, I say, "Read our history." The Tutsi were collaborators for the Belgian colonists, they stole our Hutu land, they whipped us. Now they have come back, these Tutsi rebels. They are cockroaches. They are murderers. Rwanda is our Hutu land. We are the majority. They are a minority of traitors and invaders. We will squash the infestation. We will wipe out the RPF rebels. This is RTLM, Hutu power radio. Stay alert. Watch your neighbours" -George Rutaganda, Hotel Rwanda.
While direct rule may not always be the case as it was in Rwanda, the effects of colonialism and their pertinent link to genocide are numerous and widespread. In his book How Europe Underdeveloped Africa, Walter Rodney examines the way in which European nations economically exploited African resources, creating monocultures that divested national economies. Post-colonial theorist Franz Fanon investigated the psychological effects of colonialism, arguing that years of domination and subjugation led to an overwhelming sense on inferiority and inadequacy, which in turn barred nation's growth following independence. European nation's cherry-picked Africa's wealth, squandering her resources, demoralizing her people, and causing nations to fall into a pattern of dependency. Following independence nations were abruptly forced to fend for themselves. Economically and socially they were weak and divided and politically they were inexperienced and the continent became poverty stricken and politically corrupt. It was this that paved the way for coup d'etats and genocide.
All in all, African tribes do not innately lean toward genocide, but rather has colonialism influenced and instigated them. The peaceful existence of tribes in Africa is completely plausible, but it has been hindered by colonialism's numerous long-lasting effects.
Helpful Links:
http://www.globalissues.org/Geopolitics/Africa/Intro.asp#TheLegacyofEuropeanColonialism
http://www.foreignaffairs.org/20010501fareviewessay4773/jeffrey-herbst/the-unanswered-question-attempting-to-explain-the-rwandan-genocide.html?mode=print
http://floydn.blogspot.com/2005/09/societal-tribalism-in-south-africa.html
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54 comments:
Kennan,
i disagree with you that as long as tribalism exists so will genocide. take for example, sarah's view of new york city, she points out that although there are many differnet cultures, they seem to work together to a reasonable level, at least a level in which genocide isn't present. Maybe the problem isn't tribalism at all, but a lack of substantial resources to be shared. Perhaps if resources were provided and education in the arena of relationship was gained these tribes would be able to thrive regardless of cultural differences. secondly, i feel as though genocide exists for reasons other than tribalism, take for example Hitler's actions toward the Jews in World War II. That was a clear genocide, that lacked the presense of any tribalistic players. I think genocide is an immoral act that cant be clearly linked to one particular cause.
Jeff L.
Jeff,
Kennan does illustrate a possible link between genocide and tribalism, but he does not conclude that tribalism is the main reason for genocide. At the closing of his blog, he poses a question to his readers: “Can you prove that genocides only exist because of tribalism?” By posing that question, Kennan recognizes that it would be a challenge for others to find a causal relationship between the two. He even mentions in his final paragraph other possible reasons for why genocide exists and concludes that there is NOT one solid reason. It seems as though many people assume that there is an obvious link between tribalism and genocide, but from both Sarah’s and Kennan’s blogs, the link is not as accurate as many have thought. Maybe once genocide begins, tribalism acts as a catalyst for atrocities, but to say that it is directly related to genocide can be problematic.
Stacy H,
I agree with you that tribalism can act as a catalyst once genocide has already started. Tribalism is not the underlying reason why genocide occurs. As mentioned by Jeff, the Holocaust was by no means a tribalistic act.
And I do believe that most of the genocide problems that are going on in Africa are as a result of colonialism. In some instances, ethnicities were divided into different countries and power was assigned to some ethnicities over the others based on whatever would benefit the colonials. As in the case of Rwanda, the minority Tutsis were given more power over the majority Hutus. The Tutsis proceeded to use their power to oppress the Hutus, which eventually led to the 1994 Rwandan genocide. It was not that tribalism had instigated the genocide, but the structures that were set up during colonialism that set the country up for disaster.
Colonialism has left behind structures that have led to so much instability that Africans have nothing to counteract genocide. I think if conditions were better in Africa, there would not be as much fighting. But what it comes down to, Africa is not going to be able to develop when everytime they start to accomplish something, a war/fighting/genocide is there to knock them back down.
That last entry was mine (Kristy G)
I've been going through various definitions of genocide that seem to cover the gruesome to the simplistic annihilation of entire portions of a community based on ethnic or other divides. I cannot see how genocide is uniquely African because of so many other mass slaughters of groups like the muslims in Bosnia, Tamils in Sri lanka, Jews in WW2, Cambodians, Chileans...the list is endless. Sometimes I think the problem with overlooking these other incidents as genocide is because of a lack of media attention on the specifics of how this 'ethnic cleansing' is taking place. Somehow there is a heightened media coverage to portray the barbaric way Africa's genocides unfold, which is no more gruesome than those across the globe. Perhaps it is linked to Keenan's idea of tribalism, our misinformed idea that Africa is backward and what remains is a constant replay of machetes and guns. But it is almost an identical scene internationally and has had similar characteristics over time: race, ideological or religious extremism, conceptions of the purity of a race or an ideology, and a desire for territorial expansion or conquest.
In short, I do not think genocide is uniquely African.
To Stacy and Keenan,
I understand both your comments regrading tribalism. As I read closer, however, I notice that both of you are arguing the same thing. I may be simplistic and naive in saying so. Stacy states that because of colonialism and the negative impacts, that contributed to genocide, not tribalism. Keenan states essentially the same thing, especially towards the end of the blog; that is, corruption and bad leadership (remnants, according to you both of colonialism) that has led to genocide. Both Stacy and Keenan are arguing the same thing.
To you both,
What I'm curious about is that both of you present pretty much the same argument...as Stacy writes
"Economically and socially they were weak and divided and politically they were inexperienced and the continent became poverty stricken and politically corrupt. It was this that paved the way for coup d'etats and genocide."
If that's the case, I then try to recall the MIddle Ages and the feudal system that was in place and try to correlate it with Africa during the latter half of the 20th Century up to present day. What I see are huge and undeniable similarities.
To do a comparision, imagine the Kind of England during the Middle Ages. He's the "corrupt" leader that uses personal-rule to control his country, via lords and bishops from rising up against him and de-throning (aka coup d'etats). Similarily, many African leaders in their own respective countries are using the same model, though with different names more applicable to today's world. Nonetheless, the structure is still the same.
The one item to keep in mind is that regardless of how the Middle Ages came about (via collapse of the Roman Empire) or how today's African state is in (via colonialism), the end result is the same: corruption, weak political states, social decline, etc....everything that Stacy summarized above.
Therefore, my question to both of you in particular is, how come the Middle Ages could be transformed into what is viewed as Europe today (at least the 'western part') and yet this is not the case in Africa? Is it because the Middle Ages lasted a few centuries and thus Africa's current state needs to last a few centuries as well? Wouldn't technology help to speed up the process for today's Africa? Is globalization the hindrance, as compared with the Middle Ages where trade and commerce were more localized? If that's the case, is trying to solve problems the "African way" the answer...or are we deluding ourselves?
You answer....
don,
I think you mean sarah (as opposed to stacy). Don't give me credit for what she wrote, it's all her. I do agree though with her argument.
Sarah,
While i agree that the colonial practices of western governments did have a great hand in creating many of the "tribal" tensions like those in Rwana and Burundi, i do not thing that they are wholy to blame for the current crises in Africa. As long as African governments continue to use ethnicity as a political weapon and as a way to gain favor and wealth, these problems will continue indefinatly. Take any situation where people feel that others are unfairly benifiting at their expense and you will find unrest and distrust. While colonialism contributed to this problem, it i did not create it, and it is not even responsible for fixing it. Colonialism was a horrible even in Africa's history, and it needs to be remembered and learned from, but it also needs to be put in the past. We need to get rid of this idea of, who started it, because the people who started it are long dead or not in power. While it is no easy task, African governments need to start getting their legitimacy and power not from ethnic or "tribal" boundries, but from popular elections that include all ethnic groups. Until governments can get their citizens to see themselves as members of the state first, "tribe" second, how can the violence be stopped?
Kennan and Sarah,
I don't think that one can blame genocide on tribalism alone, it's not that simple. An example of non-tribalistic genocide that is the widespread infanticide in China where the "virtual extermination of 'surplus' baby girls" occurs. Genocide in Africa isn't soley related to tribalism, but rather the result of colonialists using tribalism to their advantage. As of now, I put the blame on colonialism, not tribalism for the occurance of widespread genocide in Africa.
Genocide is a result of organized propaganda between people perceived to be different. The Nazis organized hatred against the Jews, the US organized a governmental difference and hatred between white and black Americans, and the Belgians organized a difference and hatred between the Hutus and the Tutsis. Genocide begins with hatred and hatred must be organized and pushed into the minds of the masses. This takes power, power that only governments influenced by past colonial social-imaging can do. Genocide is not the mere result of tribalism but a product of governments as historically seen in Germany, US and Rwanda.
Don,
I understand where the analogy between Africa following its independence and Europe following the collapse of the Roman Empire is coming from, however I believe there to be quite some disparity.
First, the Holy Roman Empire did not exploit its own empire in the same ways that colonialism did in Africa. The economic, social, and political, effects of colonialism were far more severe than that of the Holy Roman Empire. Socially, the abuse that the African people endured under colonialism as a result of slavery and subjugation does not run neck and neck with that of say the feudal system in France. Furthermore, even though much of Europe existed under an absolute monarchy, the King served merely as a figurehead who yielded much of his power to the Nobility and Clergy, which resulted in more of a class struggle than kleptocracy. Finally, colonialism, as opposed to the Holy Roman Empire, squandered the resources of African continent, one of its most prized possessions. Take also into consideration that the Middle Ages existed before the Industrial Revolution and therefore did not have this gap to traverse whereas the African continent following its independence was so far behind than rest of the world that it became almost impossible to make up for lost time. It is impossible to ignore how the Middle Ages came about versus the current African state as the Holy Roman Empire and the Middle Ages does not equally compare to the severity of colonialism and the current African state. The social, political, and economic factors in both situations vary.
Matt Colip,
I did not argue that genocide was the result of tribalism but rather the exact opposite. In my web-blog, I state that I believe genocide in Africa to be the result of colonialism and its numerous and widespread political, social, and economic effects.
Matt G.,
I agree with you that colonial rule in Africa is in the past, but are the effects of colonialism still pertinent to the continent's current state? In my web-blog, I argue that not only colonialism, but the EFFECTS of colonialism are responsible for the current state in Africa. One of the effects of colonialism is arguably political corruptness, which is what you attribute to genocide. While your idea that "African governments need to start getting their legitimacy and power not from ethnic or "tribal" boundaries, but from popular elections that include all ethnic groups", it is much easier said than done, and I believe that it was the effects of colonialism that have created such problems. I agree that what is of colonialism cannot be changed, however, it is impossible to ignore the effects of colonialism in the realm of this topic.
While the origins of tribalism and thus genocide, in some instances, can be traced back to colonial powers, it is incorrect to argue that it rests at root of all genocide. Historically speaking, examples of genocide, irregardless of outside forces, abound. From biblical times when Israel exterminated entire tribes, through the twentieth century, when in 1933 the policy of genocide was approved via election by a majority of the German citizenry attempted extermination has always occurred. Thus, while the deep felt hatred between some African tribes today may stem from colonialism, an absolute link to genocide does not exist.
Also, to use NYC as an example is to live under the delusion that New Yorkers have and do today peacefully coexist. Warring gangs of the past used the city as a battlefield to settle their ethnic differences. To etch a little Italy or China out of an ethnically diverse city demonstrates the inability of different gangs or tribes to coexist. Also, in citing the example of the Indians, many would consider the white man's diligence in securing this land as their own as genocide. While, the hatred and feelings of superiority may date back hundreds of years, it is not a result of an outside influence whispering in the white man's ear that they were better.
The conclusion that can be deduced from these examples is that Genocide or violence is always a danger when different ethnic groups or tribes vie for power or land. And thus, no matter the origins of discontent, the fact remains that maligning tribes exist in Africa today unfortunately making genocide a constant, tangible possibility.
While the origins of tribalism and thus genocide, in some instances, can be traced back to colonial powers, it is incorrect to argue that it rests at root of all genocide. Historically speaking, examples of genocide, irregardless of outside forces, abound. From biblical times when Israel exterminated entire tribes, through the twentieth century, when in 1933 the policy of genocide was approved via election by a majority of the German citizenry attempted extermination has always occurred. Thus, while the deep felt hatred between some African tribes today may stem from colonialism, an absolute link to genocide does not exist.
Also, to use NYC as an example is to live under the delusion that New Yorkers have and do today peacefully coexist. Warring gangs of the past used the city as a battlefield to settle their ethnic differences. To etch a little Italy or China out of an ethnically diverse city demonstrates the inability of different gangs or tribes to coexist. Also, in citing the example of the Indians, many would consider the white man's diligence in securing this land as their own as genocide. While, the hatred and feelings of superiority may date back hundreds of years, it is not a result of an outside influence whispering in the white man's ear that they were better.
The conclusion that can be deduced from these examples is that Genocide or violence is always a danger when different ethnic groups or tribes vie for power or land. And thus, no matter the origins of discontent, the fact remains that maligning tribes exist in Africa today unfortunately making genocide a constant, tangible possibility.
Anonymous:
You conclude in your last comment that genocide inevitably exists whenever multiple ethnic groups are living in the same area and fight over power. I agree with this, however, the influence that colonialism had in Africa on these already waring tribes was that it amplified the situation by placing an ethnic group that, before did not control the entire land mass, in charge of the government and colonial claimed land. Now, if genocide was going to occur it would and has on a much larger scale than during the pre-colonial times. I think genocide is clearly not unique to Africa, as many have made examples to suggest so, but I do think that colonialism played a role in amplifying the inevitable effects of war and genocide among multi-ethnic populations by appointing certain ethnic groups to absolute power. Both tribalism and colonialism are not causes of genocide, human nature and the struggle for power is. Colonialism encouraged genocide by choosing ruling ethnic groups and causing a destabilization in the balance of power, which during post-colonial rule, in some countries such as Rwanda, resulted in massive wars and genocide.
For those who remotely think that Genocide has occurred and will occur in Africa because of tribalism and the numerous ethnic groups you wrong in your analysis. I come from a country with a diverse number of ethnic groups and yet, my country has not experienced any genocide. Ethnic groups despite their differences in Ghana do not engage in such atrocious acts against each other. My Great Grandfather Chief Yaw Awuah an Ashanti (Asante) has a Fante Lineage. (He was the Paramount Chief of Ejisu who reigned while Nana Yaa Asantewa was Queen mother), The Fantes in the 19th Century supported the Europeans in their battles against the Asante.We the Asantes do not hold any resentment against the Fantes in today’s Ghana.Even in the 19th century we inter-married. My best-friends from home are Fante's,Ewe, Ga's, you name the tribe and yet we do not put knives at each others throat. We go clubbing, dancing and even cook together. The tribes I have mentioned engaged in wars against my people as far back as the 17th century. I am cognizant of the history, but I have no ill feelings. I personally find it very offensive when people use the existence of ethnic groups to account for the violence that is occurring in Africa. I have to go now... to be continued
In my duration of stay in an African country that has so many ethnic groups, I have come to the realization that hatred among the different ethnic groups is not innate. If the problem of tribalism exists, it is a result of colonial legacies and also a result of the government manipulating the masses against each other. The governments apply the theory of divide and conquer to ensure that they stay in power. The term tribe has no African origin; the colonizers created it.
We Africans do not have innate hate for other groups of people no matter the grievances we have against them. It is therefore wrong to say that because of tribalism Genocide will always exist in African countries.
Please Note :-In Africa prior to colonization we did not have tribes we had communities, states, nation (e.g. The Asante Nation), clans and ethnic groups.
Matt G,
I agree with your assertion about the role the government has played in exploiting the masses against each other, Yes, governments have a reponsibility to ensure that their citizens prioritize their connection to the state first. Unfortunately in many African countries, there is a failed relationship between the state and the African. You may ask why is that so. Well before and after independence we were all gang-ho about building the nation up as a country. Unfortunately the hybrid elites who became our leaders, exploited the differences in ethnic groups for their own advantage. In Ghana, Kwame Nkrumah carved out the Brong-Ahafo Region out of the larger Ashanti Region. In Nkrumah's opinion, because the Asante nation ( In the Ashanti Region) was soo huge and the people were so interconnected, The Asantes(Ashantis) will break away and form their own country. A very ridiculous assertion. The Asante Nation cuts across the Ghanaian borders into Togo and La Cote D'Ivoire(Ivory Coast) and yet our King (the Asantehene) has never call for a secession.
Yes Matt G, colonialism has ended and we should not blame the colonialists for all our problems. However, I do not think it is right for us to downplay the role of the colonialists in the current African crisis. Also the colonialist did so may grevious things. The British burnt down the Asante Musuem in the late 19th century when they invaded Kumasi. The British killed our people and also took away our King into exile in the Seychelles. Are we Asantes (Ashantis) angry with the British. No !! We have moved on. We trade and have different levels of interraction with the british. Have we forgiven them yes, should we forget the sordid past. I do not think so
I think that genocides are politically motivated but the reason they succeed or are accepted by a populace is because of a populace being environmentally challenged (resource limitation).
Someone once told me that non-domesticated wolves in the wild look alike. Similarity in the wild is a survival advantage. It is only once tame-wolves (dogs) became domesticated and their needs were taken care of by their owners that their diversity of coat colours took root. This is all within one or two generations (without massive genetic experimentation).
It seems to me that if humans share any qualities with other tribal animals then it suited us to look as like other members of our local tribes as possible so not to be identified as competitors (even when we were).
The problem for the future of humanity is how to share scarce resources without undue conflict. Unless population pressures drop then a united effort to stop mass death is unlikely - be it from starvation, genocide, democide or other means.
Humans are moral when they live in circumstances that enable them to be moral. I think that beneath the surface, survival instincts are at work and if pressures become great enough people will act as animals and become territorial and violent against anyone they can identify as "other".
Even if humanity rids itself of obvious symbols eg. we all end up with the same skin colour, eye colour and height. People will choose symbols in order to belong to groups - if belonging to a group gives one advantage. Consider how many people wear symbols voluntarily to better able to identify each other.
Many moderners hope the free market will be the way to legitimize the competitive forces that drive humanity. But, if resource limitation still means that many are left without basic needs then I do not see how we can avoid war or conflict. People will not abandon tribal links unless they can compete successfully as individuals.
I would be very curious to know if there are any studies on pre-colonial african tribalism and genocidal acts. What happened in nazi Germany seems to me like an historic anomaly in terms of the systematic mass executions of a specific ethnic group. I don't recall similar events having ocurred in recent germanic history. I also find it very different when mass killings are organized by the state and carried out by special forces as opposed to civilians slaughtering people with "machetes".
Although I believe that colonialism is much to blame for tribalistic conflicts, the savageness of the killings has to be related with another factor. I would be very interested in reading studies on tribal conflicts prior to colonialism in order to deal with these types of questions, that is, what is the result of the evils of colonialism and what is inherent to a type of culture or customs.
Sebastian
I would be very curious to know if there are any studies on pre-colonial african tribalism and genocidal acts. What happened in nazi Germany seems to me like a historic anomaly in terms of the systematic mass executions of a specific ethnic group (though I m no expert on germanic history). I don't recall similar events having ocurred in recent germanic history (before of after the Second World War). I also find it very different when mass killings are organized by the state and carried out by special forces as opposed to civilians slaughtering people with "machetes" in the streets, churches, homes, etc.
Although I believe that colonialism is much to blame for tribalistic conflicts, the savageness of the killings has to be related to another factor. I would be very interested in reading studies on tribal conflicts prior to colonialism in order to deal with these types of questions, that is, being able to sort out what is the result of the evils of colonialism and what is inherent to a type of culture or customs.
Sebastian
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